As Judea Pearl, who, in the 1980s, introduced a new approach to artificial intelligence called Bayesian networks, explained to me: What Wiener created was excitement to believe that one day we are going to make an intelligent machine. He wasn't a computer scientist. He talked feedback, he talked communication, he talked analog. His working metaphor was a feedback circuit, which he was an expert in. By the time the digital age began in the early 1960s people wanted to talk programming, talk codes, talk about computational functions, talk about short-term memory, long-term memory— meaningful computer metaphors. Wiener wasn’t part of that, and he didn’t reach the new generation that germinated with his ideas. His metaphors were too old, passé. There were new means already available that were ready to capture the human imagination.” By 1970, people were no longer talking about Wiener. One critical factor missing in Wiener’s vision was the cognitive element: mind, thinking, intelligence. As early as 1942, at the first of a series of foundational interdisciplinary meetings about the control of complex systems that would come to be known as the Macy conferences, leading researchers were arguing for the inclusion of the cognitive element into the conversation. While von Neumann, Shannon, and Wiener were concerned about systems of control and communication of observed systems, Warren McCullough wanted to include mind. He turned to cultural anthropologists Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead to make the connection to the social sciences. Bateson in particular was increasingly talking about patterns and processes, or “the pattern that connects.” He called for a new kind of systems ecology in which organisms and the environment in which they live are one in the same, and should be considered as a single circuit. By the early 1970s the Cybernetics of observed systems—1* order Cybernetics— moved to the Cybernetics of observing systems—2"™ order Cybernetics—or “the Cybernetics